Glossary

An abaya (ʿabāyah in Arabic) is a loose, full-length outer garment worn by some Muslim women as part of modest dress. It typically resembles a robe or kaftan, and covers the entire body except for the head (in some cases), hands, and feet.

Abayas are often worn in combination with a head covering (hijab) or face veil (niqab), depending on personal, cultural, or religious preference. This style of dress is widely worn in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf (including Saudi Arabia, Yemen, the UAE, and Qatar), as well as in parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa.

See also: Hijab, Al-Amira, Burqa, Chador, Khimar, Niqab, Shayla

Acculturation refers to the process by which individuals or groups from one culture come into contact with and adopt elements of another culture. This can involve changes in language, customs, values, behaviours, or identity, often taking place when people migrate or when different cultures interact over time. Acculturation can be either voluntary or involuntary and occurs at both individual and collective levels. The degree of cultural change can vary, from minimal adaptation to full assimilation, depending on social, political, and personal factors.

See also: adaptation and assimilation

Adaptation refers to the process by which individuals or groups adjust their customs, beliefs, and practices to fit into a new or changing cultural environment. This adjustment allows them to function effectively and integrate into the new cultural context, often while retaining elements of their original culture and learning to navigate the new one. Unlike assimilation, which often implies a complete absorption into the dominant culture, adaptation typically involves a blending of cultural elements.

See also: acculturation and assimilation

Akhlaq is the practice of virtue, morality and manners in Islamic theology and falsafah (philosophy). It is the plural of the word khulq, which means ‘disposition’ in English. Akhlaq is the most commonly used Islamic term for morality.

The al-amira (al-amīrah in Arabic) is a type of hijab worn by some Muslim women to observe the Islamic principle of modesty and separation. It provides full coverage of the hair, neck, and ears, while leaving the face visible. The most common al-amira is a two-piece veil consisting of:

1. A fitted cap or headband that is worn underneath to cover the hair and provide a secure base. This cap is usually made from stretchy, comfortable material like cotton or polyester.
2. A tube-like scarf that is slipped over the cap to drape over the head and shoulders, covering the neck and chest.

Unlike other styles of hijab, the al-amira does not require pins or complex wrapping, making it a convenient and popular choice, especially for everyday use or for those new to wearing hijab.

A Muslim woman who wears the al-amira or any other form of hijab may be called a “hijabi” in Arabic.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Burqa, Chador, Khimar, Niqab, Shayla

A term used primarily in anthropological and linguistic contexts to refer to a member of one of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. It is a blend of “American” and “Indian” and has historically been used to distinguish Indigenous peoples of the Americas from other groups. While still used in academic settings, the term is less common in contemporary discourse.

More specific or locally preferred identifiers (such as Indigenous, First Nations, Native American, or specific tribal names) are generally favoured.

English-speaking

Hostility towards or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group.

To be opposed to the power or influence of the religious clergy, especially in politics.

Apartheid (pronounced ə-ˈpär-ˌtāt) is an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness" or "apartness." It refers to a system of discriminatory laws enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994 that segregated people based on race. The apartheid system institutionalised the oppression and exclusion of the non-white majority, denying them equal political, social, and economic rights and opportunities. This legal policy reinforced the domination of the white minority, who held all the political power and most of the wealth, while severely disadvantaging non-white South Africans.

The abandonment or renunciation of a religious or political belief or principle.

Assimilation generally refers to the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits of another, typically a larger or more dominant group. This often involves taking on the new culture’s habits, values, behaviours, and norms, sometimes to the extent that one’s original cultural identity becomes diminished or entirely absorbed.

See also: acculturation and adaptation

An asylum seeker is a person who seeks international protection from conflict, persecution, or serious human rights violations but has not yet been legally recognised as a refugee. This includes individuals who have fled their country and are awaiting a decision on their asylum application, as well as those who intend to seek asylum but have not yet formally submitted their claim. In some countries, ‘asylum seeker’ is also a legal term referring to an individual whose claim for refugee status is still being processed.

Seeking asylum is a human right, protected under international law by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1951 Refugee Convention, regardless of how or where a person arrives. While not all asylum seekers will be granted refugee status, every refugee was once an asylum seeker.

Disbelief or lack of belief in the existence of God or gods.

A system of government in which one person holds absolute power.

​Behaviour, symbols or language considered offensive or disrespectful to God or religion. In the most general sense, blasphemy is an offence against something sacred. The sacred may be a deity, person, object, or doctrine.

Blasphemy is usually associated with monotheistic religions that recognise and worship one god. The offence can also occur in polytheistic religions, although it is more common to use ‘sacrilege’ to connote similar concepts.

A blue-collar worker is an individual engaged in manual labour or skilled trades. It typically refers to those employed in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, mining, or maintenance industries. This occupational classification originated in the early 20th century to describe the traditional working class, referencing the blue overalls and other darker-coloured clothing commonly worn in factory jobs.

The term 'brahmin' refers to those in the highest caste, and thus the least polluted, group in the caste system.

A bureaucracy is a system of organisation (typically found in governments, large companies, or institutions) that relies on a large number of officials who follow established rules and procedures. Bureaucracies are marked by complexity, division of labour, hierarchical coordination, and a strict chain of command.

The adjective ‘bureaucratic’ describes procedures or systems that are overly complex, excessive and slow. It often carries a negative connotation, implying institutional inefficiency, overregulation and excessive administrative obstacles.

The burqa is a full-body veil worn by some Muslim women to observe the Islamic principles of modesty and partition (hijab). It is the most concealing form of Islamic covering, enveloping the entire body from head to feet in a long, loose-fitting garment. The face is also fully covered, typically with a mesh or net screen over the eyes that allows the wearer to see while maintaining total facial concealment. This form of face veil is technically a type of niqab (“mask”), and therefore, a woman who wears a burqa may be referred to as a “niqabi” in Arabic.

The term “burqa” has evolved into a broad umbrella term used to describe various types of full-body veils worn across different Islamic cultures. Most styles consist of a cap attached to a cape-like body covering that fans out from the head. The front is often decorated with embroidery, and the back is typically pleated. However, there are numerous regional variations, each with distinct construction techniques, materials, and decorative traditions that often reflect the identity of specific ethnic or cultural groups.

• Chadari: The chadari, also known as the Afghan burqa, is a distinctive style native to Afghanistan, typically made from light blue fabric. It features a separate face veil panel with a stitched mesh screen over the eyes. The garment is constructed with hundreds of tightly pressed pleats gathered around the upper section of the chador, which are then sewn onto the cap, creating the chador’s dome-like silhouette and characteristic volume.
• Pakistani burqa: In this style, the eye panel is directly connected to the cap, with no separate lower panel inserted beneath it. The pleated folds are typically formed by gathering excess fabric on a drawstring or using smocking techniques, then attaching the material to the cap to create a voluminous appearance. In Pakistan, this type of burqa is most commonly worn by women in the tribal areas bordering Afghanistan, particularly in Pashtun regions.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Al-Amira, Chador, Khimar, Niqab, Shayla

A subdivision of a country established for political or administrative purposes.

The terms ‘caste’ and ‘caste system’ are often used to describe forms of social organisation considered unique to the Indian subcontinent. Although primarily associated with India and Hinduism, caste systems also exist across other South Asian countries, including Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, and within non-Hindu religious communities. As a result, caste-based structures have extended beyond national borders through the South Asian diaspora.

The caste system divides society into numerous stratified groups or communities, often according to occupations. In contemporary society, these affiliations are typically hereditary, passed down from birth. Caste groups are also usually endogamous, with individuals expected or strongly encouraged to marry within their caste. While endogamy is the norm, hypergamy can sometimes occur, allowing women to marry into a higher caste.

Due to its historical and regional complexity, caste is difficult to define succinctly. The English word ‘caste’ itself is not derived from a South Asian language, and is used today as an umbrella term referring to multiple overlapping systems of social stratification, with the following two being the most common:

1) The broad caste system is known as ‘varṇa’, which categorises society into four caste groups: brahmin (priestly caste), kshatriya (nobility caste), vaishya (mercantile caste) and shudra (artisan or labourer caste). While some members of society historically viewed the varṇa caste structure as the ideal form of social organisation, the structure is not necessarily reflective of historical patterns of social stratification.

Over time, ideas of varṇa groups contributed to the development of entrenched social hierarchies. Particular castes lower in the hierarchy became increasingly stigmatised as ‘less pure’ compared to higher castes, and interactions between them were limited or restricted. The concept of ‘dalits’ (also known as ‘untouchables’) was a modern development. This category, thought to be outside the caste system, was understood as the lowest caste group and thus referred to as the ‘least pure’ members of society. Because of this, dalits have faced severe discrimination, exclusion and marginalisation.

2) The jāti caste system is a more granular model of social stratification comprising many jāti categories that reflect hereditary occupations, vocations, social functions, trades or lines of study. Jāti groups tend to be localised, reflecting traditional occupational and social identities passed down through generations. While jāti groups are commonly ranked hierarchically, their relative status to one another can vary by region or change over time, with some groups being considered caste-neutral.

The chādor or chādar is a body-length outer garment and a type of hijab worn by some Muslim women to observe the Islamic principle of modesty and partition. It is typically made from a large semicircular piece of fabric that is draped over the head and wrapped around the body, covering the hair, neck, and entire body while leaving the face exposed. The chador has a cloak-like design, open at the front and held closed with the hands or tucked under the arms, rather than fastened with buttons or clasps. It is commonly worn with a smaller headscarf underneath for additional coverage.

The term "chador" originates from the Persian word čādar, meaning “tent,” “mantle,” or “scarf”, and is most commonly associated with Iranian culture. Chadors became particularly widespread in Iran after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, where they are worn for both religious reasons and in response to legal or social expectations. In some public settings, wearing the chador has become effectively mandatory for women. The chador is also worn in neighbouring countries such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as in some Shi'a Muslim communities in Iraq, Bahrain, Lebanon, India and Saudi Arabia.

Black chadors are widely associated with modesty and tend to be the predominant colour worn in public spaces, while lighter-coloured chadors are often worn indoors or during prayer.

A Muslim woman who wears the chador or any other form of hijab may be called a “hijabi” in Arabic.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Al-Amira, Burqa, Khimar, Niqab, Shayla

A clan is a social unit of organisation. The group network of a clan is based on extended family ties whereby members are related to each other on the basis of actual or perceived kinship.

Membership to a clan is often determined by descent through paternal lineage, although some clans may be matrilineal. Clans have a shared identity, which may be represented in a symbol or totem.

Collectivism is the opposite cultural orientation to individualism. Collectivist cultures are typically interdependent and group-centric. Co-operation and collective achievement is emphasised over self-fulfilment and personal gain. Harmony is considered highly important and competition can sometimes be considered to be counterproductive as individuals are expected to conform and share the same goal as those in their group.

People in collectivist cultures tend to feel a strong sense of responsibility to those around them. There is often a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. This in-group can be one’s family, colleagues, local or national community or country, or any faction of people that one shares an interest or identifying trait with (e.g. religion, ethnicity, gender, age, education).

In collectivist cultures, one's group tends to reflect or define who its members are and often entail overriding loyalty. For instance, individuals may tend to privilege the group’s interests over their own, even if they conflict. Furthermore, those who are in the same group often expect to receive preferential treatment from other group-members. In return for this loyalty, an individual gains a sense of belonging, protection and unity. Individuals may be less enticed to act independently in collectivist cultures.

Collectivism is one of Hofstede's dimensions of national culture. Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions here.

Colonisation is the action or process of settling among and establishing control over the Indigenous people of an area.

Strong allegiance to one's ethnic group rather than to society as a whole.

Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system originating in China. Derived from the teachings of the classical sage Kong Fuzi (Confucius), it emphasises the importance of harmonious social relationships. Much of Confucian thought focuses on moral and social structures, collectivism, proper conduct, the importance of family and filial piety, and the prioritising of community needs over individual ones. These values are deeply embedded in many Asian cultures.

Confucian thought emphasises the centrality of family relationships and social hierarchies, identifying five fundamental human relationships as the foundation of a harmonious society. Three of these are familial (parent and child, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife) and are prioritised over the two non-familial relationships (teacher and student, ruler and subject). Each relationship involves reciprocal duties, with an individual’s role and behaviour shaped by their position in these relational hierarchies.

The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is a global indicator that ranks 180 countries and territories by their perceived levels of public sector corruption. It uses a scale of 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean) based on assessments by experts and business people, not general public opinion.

High scores (closer to 100) suggest relatively clean public institutions, while low scores (closer to 0) indicate widespread corruption among public officials and politicians. Mid-range scores reflect ongoing challenges with integrity in the public sector.

The CPI index focuses solely on corruption within the public sector and does not measure corruption across society as a whole. A country’s rank indicates its position relative to others, not an absolute level of corruption – for example, even the highest-ranking countries are not free from corruption.

All scores and rankings used in the Cultural Atlas are taken from the Transparency International website.

Cross-cultural refers to the interaction, comparison, or influence between people or groups from different cultural backgrounds, often highlighting differences and similarities in values, beliefs, behaviours, and communication style across cultures.

Cross-cultural communication is the process of exchanging information between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds, where cultural diversity is recognised but not fully integrated. It involves understanding and navigating differences in language, norms, values, and communication styles to promote mutual understanding. This approach typically operates within the framework of a dominant culture, which serves as the reference point and may reinforce existing cultural hierarchies.

See also: multicultural and intercultural for other types of cross-cultural interaction.

Culture shock refers to the discomfort that individuals may experience when adjusting to a new cultural environment. It often arises from encountering unfamiliar customs, communication styles, social expectations, or values. This may manifest as feelings of confusion, anxiety, frustration, or helplessness. Culture shock typically unfolds in stages: from initial excitement, to discomfort and adaptation, and eventually to adjustment and acceptance.

The term 'dalit' or 'untouchable' refers to those in the lowest socioeconomic groups in the caste system. Dalits are often perceived as the least ‘pure’ caste group, and thus face discrimination and exclusion from various aspects of South Asian social and religious life.

Daoism is a philosophical and religious system that promotes holistic well-being and mastery of the spiritual realm through practice. The tradition is based on several classical texts, such as the Book of Zhuangzi and the Dao De Jing, which outline core ideas and attitudes, including total harmony, spontaneity, naturalness, stillness, intuition, and transformation. The term Dao (the ‘Way’ or the ‘Path’) refers to the pervasive and immutable law of reality that governs all things in the universe.

The dualistic and complementary concepts of yin and yang are central to Daoist thought. Yin is associated with stillness, receptivity, and retreat, and is commonly aligned with feminine qualities. In contrast, yang represents movement, action, and assertion, reflecting masculine attributes. Together, these two opposing yet complementary forces symbolise balance and interdependence. According to Daoist teachings, all that exists can be understood as predominantly yin or yang in nature.

A democracy is a system of government in which citizens choose their government representatives by electing them.

Something that is democratic is based on the idea that everyone should have equal rights and should be involved in making important decisions.

The term ‘developed countries’ generally refers to nations with high income levels and standards of living relative to other industrialised countries. It is applied to countries based on economic performance and quality of life, often using metrics such as income per capita, gross domestic product (GDP), or life expectancy. ‘Developed countries’ typically have advanced post-industrial economies and technological infrastructure, meaning the service sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. This categorisation generally includes countries in North America, Europe, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.

The widespread use of "developed" and "developing" has led to the terminology being applied beyond economic contexts as ubiquitous descriptors of countries. For example, the term "developed world" can take on a broader colloquial meaning, encompassing the political and social structures of wealthy Western countries. This usage can perpetuate outdated stereotypes of countries as "First World" and "Third World". Overall, the developing/developed world categorisation is increasingly regarded as an overly simplified binary that is less relevant.

For more precise communication, consider using terms like "high-income", "middle-income," or "low-income" when referring specifically to a country's economic standing.

The term ‘developing countries’ generally refers to low- and middle-income countries with lower standards of living compared to other industrialised nations. It is applied to countries based on economic performance and quality of life, often using metrics such as income per capita, gross domestic product (GDP), or life expectancy. Developing countries are typically in the process of industrialisation (newly emerging economies) or are pre-industrial (predominantly agrarian).

The widespread use of "developed" and "developing" has led to the terminology being applied beyond economic contexts as ubiquitous descriptors of countries. For example, the "developing world" can take on a broader colloquial meaning, encompassing the political and social structures of countries with lower technological and commercial infrastructure. This usage can perpetuate outdated stereotypes of countries as "First World" and "Third World". Overall, the developing/developed world categorisation is increasingly regarded as an overly simplified binary that is less relevant.

For more precise communication, consider using terms like "high-income", "middle-income," or "low-income" when referring specifically to a country's economic standing.

The movement, migration or dispersion of any people away from their established or ancestral homeland.

Direct communication involves explicit communication patterns that do not rely on the surrounding context to give meaning. The message is not encoded in understatements, body language or speech style, rather the entire meaning is apparent through the precise words chosen by the speaker.

Direct communication is often used in low context cultures where people’s position or intentions are not easily distinguishable by their appearance or status (for example, Germany, Canada, the USA and Australia).

You can understand direct communication further by learning about indirect communication, which is the opposite cultural orientation. For more explanation on both direct and indirect communication, try the Cultural Competence Program.

[Australian slang] To report on someone’s mistake so that they receive the consequences for their actions.

"Dobber" is also used to refer to someone who reported on a friend’s behaviour when it was not necessary to. A dobber is often assumed to be uptight.

A dowry is a gift or payment, such as money, property, or other valuable goods, presented by the bride's family to the groom or his family before or after marriage. The practice is most common in cultures with strong patriarchal structures, where brides traditionally move in with their husbands' families (patrilocality).

In many societies, the custom of giving a dowry is a reciprocal gesture by the bride’s kin to offset the expenses of marriage incurred by the groom’s kin. In some societies, a dowry has a dual function, providing a form of financial security for the wife in the event of her husband’s death.

These exchanges commonly carry social and symbolic significance beyond financial purposes. Dowries often serve to ratify the marriage and solidify the bond between the two families, thereby strengthening social ties and mutual support systems.

1. A situation in which power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of people; or
2. The belief that a society or system should be led by an elite.

Endogamy is the custom of marrying only within the limits of one's local community, clan or tribe.

There are various types of endogamy. One instance is through cross-cousin marriage (e.g. between a man and his paternal aunt’s daughter). Another example is ethnic endogamy, whereby individuals marry within their ethnic group.

An ethnicity or ethnic group is a population group whose members identify with each other on the basis of common nationality or shared cultural traditions. They are commonly formed or defined in terms of shared genealogy, whether actual or presumed by geography. Typically, if people believe they descend from a particular group, and they want to be associated with that group, then they are in fact members of that group.

Ethnicity connotes shared cultural traits and a shared group history. Some ethnic groups also share linguistic or religious traits, while others share a common group history but not a common language or religion. Ethnic groups distinguish themselves differently from one time period to another. They typically seek to define themselves but also are defined by the stereotypes of dominant groups.

The complex an individual has that makes them believe their culture is superior and the standard by which all others should be judged.

The custom of marrying outside a community, clan, or tribe.

A person who lives outside their native country.

Face is the quality embedded in most Asian cultures that indicates a person's reputation, influence, dignity and honour. By complimenting a person, showing them respect or doing something to the effect of increasing their self-esteem, you give them face.

Similarly, people can lose face, save face and build face. Therefore, in cultures that have an awareness of face, individuals usually act deliberately and with restraint to protect their self-worth and peer perception. Conservative conduct is the norm, as people don’t want to stand out and/or risk losing face by doing something inappropriate. For many, the fear of letting down the family or society dominates almost everything else.

People are often sensitive to denigration and so corrective remarks are made delicately. Pointing out someone’s error, criticising them or laughing at them are all actions that can make a person lose face. Thus, indirect approaches to communication are often taken as much as possible. Furthermore, emotive outbursts are seen as particularly embarrassing or shameful for the person losing control of their emotions.

Face differs from the Middle Eastern concept of honour in that it puts more emphasis on subtlety and emotional control. Protecting one’s reputation involves less showy demonstrations of character than in the Middle East.

The belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable. A submissive attitude to events often results from a fatalistic attitude.

Filial piety is a concept of Confucianism that stresses the importance of age in society. It is a notion familiar to much of central and East Asia. Under filial piety, the quality of age creates a hierarchy in relationships. People older than one’s self are to be honoured for their wisdom and experience. This requires a person to give their parents and elders utter respect and devotion and can sometimes eventuate as unconditional obedience of seniors.

Different greetings, body language and terms of speech are often used to address elders in cultures that honour filial piety. Arguments in the family, workplace or public domain may also be defaulted so that the oldest person wins. In other interpretations of filial piety, it applied as reverence of one’s ancestors and respect is concentrated on the previous generations of a family. In these cases, a person honours their parents, grandparents and great grandparents through ancestor worship ceremonies.

A citizen or resident who was born elsewhere and migrated to a new country. This is different to any of their children or family members that were then born in the new country of location; they would be considered second-generation migrants.

French-speaking

A form of a religion, especially Islam or Protestant Christianity, that upholds belief in the strict, literal interpretation of scripture.

The account or history of how the present members of a family relate to a past ancestor(s).

Using a predominant characteristic of its members to describe a group without being absolute.

See also: Stereotype

[in relation to collectivism] A ‘group’ is a faction of people one shares an interest or identifying trait or characteristic with (e.g. religion, ethnicity, gender, age, education).

Groups are usually bonded through a shared history or goal. Examples of groups include one’s family, business, community or country. In collectivist cultures, groups reflect or come to define who its members are and often entail overriding loyalty. For instance, individuals tend to privilege the group’s interests over their own, even if they conflict. A particularly cohesive group may interact differently with non-members.

Guanxi (pronounced GWAN-shee) is a Chinese concept that can translate to mean ‘relationships’ or ‘networking’. It is the system of social networks and influential relationships which facilitate business and other dealings.

Halal is an Arabic term meaning “permissible” or “allowed”. In Islam, it refers to anything that is permissible under Islamic law (Sharia). Halal is one of the five categories of actions (ahkam) used in Islamic jurisprudence to classify human behaviour:
– Fard (compulsory)
– Mustaḥabb (recommended)
– Halal (permissible)
– Makrūh (discouraged)
– Haram (forbidden)

An action that is halal is permitted but not necessarily required. It holds a neutral to positive status, meaning it is neither sinful nor obligatory.

The term is most commonly associated with food and drink, referring to items that are prepared and consumed in accordance with Islamic dietary laws. For example, halal meat must be slaughtered following specific religious guidelines.

Haram is an Arabic term meaning “forbidden”. In Islam, it refers to anything that is Something that is haram is prohibited under Islamic law (Sharia). Haram is one of the five categories of actions (ahkam) used in Islamic jurisprudence to classify human behaviour:
– Fard (compulsory)
– Mustaḥabb (recommended)
– Halal (permissible)
– Makrūh (discouraged)
– Haram (forbidden)

Committing a haram act is viewed as morally and spiritually harmful, and avoiding haram is a religious obligation for Muslims.

The term is often used in reference to food, drink, or behaviour. For example, pork, alcohol, and usury (charging interest) are considered haram. Similarly, actions like theft or lying also fall into this category.

The purpose of harmony is to balance society. Cooperation and unity are emphasised to keep societal relations in synthesis and operating smoothly. Harmony is a particularly important tenet to some collectivistic cultures (e.g. China, Japan).

Not conforming to accepted or orthodox standards or beliefs.

To be diverse in character or content.

A system in which members of an organisation or society are ranked according to relative status or authority. For example, they may be ranked by their age, experience, wealth or education.

High-context cultures rely heavily on the surrounding context of an interaction to convey meaning. Communication tends to be understated, indirect, and ambiguous, requiring listeners to interpret messages through non-verbal cues such as tone, silence, facial expressions, and the presence or absence of key individuals.

Members of high-context cultures often share a deep and complex body of shared values, assumptions, and experiences that inform their understanding of interactions. Social roles and intentions are often inferred from external markers, such as appearance, age, or social status.

High-context cultures are typically older, more traditional societies, such as those in China, Japan, much of Africa, the Middle East, and many Indigenous/First Nations communities. This cultural orientation contrasts with low-context societies, where meaning is conveyed more explicitly through direct verbal expression.

For a deeper explanation of high- and low-context cultural communication, see the Inclusion Program’s Cultural Diversity Course.

Hijāb (uncountable noun) is a broad Arabic term meaning “barrier” or “partition”, and can refer to any form of separation, such as the metaphysical barrier between God and creation. In Islam, hijab represents a comprehensive system of modesty, privacy, and morality that applies to both men and women. It encompasses dignified behaviour, speech, dress codes and general conduct. This set of principles and practices includes guidelines for concealing parts of the body (ʿawrah) in the presence of non-maḥram individuals (those whom one may legally marry).

In its most common usage, a hijab (countable noun) refers to a cloth head covering worn by Muslim women as a visible expression of faith and modesty. This is typically a type of veil or scarf wrapped around the head to cover the hair, neck, and ears, while leaving the face visible. A Muslim woman who observes this practice is known as a ‘hijabi’, or more politely, a ‘muḥajabah’.

There are numerous styles of hijab (such as the shayla, al-amira, and khimar) that vary in shape, colour, and method of wrapping. All adhere to the same modesty principles and are commonly referred to as ‘hijab’. These are often worn with additional garments that provide greater coverage of the body, such as the abaya, which covers the arms and legs. Other forms of hijab cover the entire body except the face, hands, and feet (such as the chador), while more comprehensive coverings also veil the face (such as the niqab or burqa).

The practice and style of hijab vary significantly depending on geographic region, cultural norms, legal requirements, and individual preference.

See also: Abaya, Al-Amira, Burqa, Chador, Khimar, Niqab, Shayla

In present-day usage, "historic Palestine" typically refers to the geographical area that now comprises Israel, the West Bank and Gaza.

Marriage between people who are similar to each other, especially in their ethnic or sociocultural backgrounds.

The quality or state of being all the same or all of the same kind.

The honour culture is the learned principle that one should protect their personal (or family’s) honour at all costs. It is a concept familiar primarily to the Middle East and some of Latin America. This requires a person to give a public impression of dignity and integrity through stressing their achievements and recommending qualities.

In Western societies, self-criticism and self-depreciation can position a person beyond moral reproach by others. In places with an honour culture, society pressures individuals to defer and deny guilt that could tarnish their honour. Any admittance to error or failure brings shame and loss of face on a person (and their family) by peers. Therefore, to prevent such indignity criticism is rarely given directly and praise is regularly emphasised and expected.

In honour cultures, being hospitable and helpful exhibits the merits of one’s character. Thus, people tend to be very welcoming, warm and giving. More pride is often taken in helping others and a sense of duty is often felt to return all favours.

The concept of honour differs from the Asian concept of face in that it involves being more demonstrative and less subtle. Having control over one’s emotions is not strongly emphasised and emotive outbursts are not seen as particularly embarrassing or shameful.

Indirect communication is a form of communication that tends to rely less on words and more on nonverbal behaviours to draw meaning. Verbal communication is often understated or laced in ambiguity. Therefore, attention is paid to the speaker’s posture, expression, gestures or tone of voice to draw further meaning. Being implicit instead of explicit has the purpose of maintaining harmony throughout the conversation and preventing offence or confrontation.

Indirect communication is used in high context cultures where people’s position or intentions in society are easily distinguishable by their appearance or status (for example, China, Japan, Africa, the Middle East). Thus, people also often assess each other’s status to help realise the context of the conversation as well.

You can understand indirect communication further by learning about direct communication, which is the opposite cultural orientation. For more explanation on both direct and indirect communication, try the Cultural Competence Program.

Individualism is opposite cultural orientation to collectivism. Individualist cultures are typically self-centric, in that individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Each person is viewed as uniquely endowed with potential and possessing distinctive talent.

People living in individualist cultures are often taught to subconsciously think of themselves as ‘special’ or ‘unique’ as they grow up. Everybody’s individual ability to be creative, assertive, self-reliant and self-directed is emphasised. Taking action, having agency over one's life and choices and being a ‘self-made man’ are seen as positive qualities. In individualist societies, interpersonal competition and personal achievement is emphasised.

Individualism is one of Hofstede's dimensions of national culture. Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions here.

Indulgence is a concept within Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory that refers to the degree of freedom societal norms allow individuals in fulfilling their basic human desires and impulses. The Indulgence versus Restraint (IND) index specifically examines the extent to which societies permit or suppress the gratification of these desires. A high-IND score indicates a cultural inclination toward Indulgence, while a low-IND score signifies a tendency toward Restraint.

Indulgent cultures emphasise personal enjoyment, pleasure, and fun. People in these societies often have a more optimistic outlook, focus on the present, and are more likely to engage in activities that bring them joy and personal fulfilment. There is typically greater freedom to pursue leisure, spend on luxuries, and openly express emotions, with a more relaxed attitude toward fulfilling personal desires.

This cultural orientation shapes both personal behaviours and broader social norms related to happiness, freedom, and life satisfaction. It can influence various aspects of society, including consumer behaviour, work-life balance, and governance.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

Intercultural refers to the interaction, exchange, and mutual influence between people or groups from different cultural backgrounds, where all cultures are treated as equally valuable and respected. Unlike cross-cultural contexts, which often compare cultures using one as the reference point, intercultural approaches emphasise reciprocal understanding, shared learning, and the co-creation of meaning across cultural boundaries.

Intercultural communication is the exchange of information between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds, grounded in mutual respect, openness, and an awareness of cultural differences. It often involves mutual adaptation, where all parties actively engage and make accommodations to foster genuine connection and understanding. Intercultural interaction can lead to personal and collective transformation, as individuals and groups develop new perspectives, adjust their behaviours, and grow together.

See also: multicultural and cross-cultural for other types of cross-cultural interaction.

Mutual reliance between people.

A military or political group that rules a country after taking power by force.

Islamic law requires the segregation of males and females who are not related by marriage or specific blood ties (maḥram). Khalwah is a situation of unlawful seclusion in which a man and woman are alone in a closed space where sexual intercourse between them can occur.

The khimār (or ʾakhmirah) is a type of hijab worn by some Muslim women to observe Islamic principles of modesty and partition. While the term can broadly refer to any head covering, it's most commonly used to describe a long, cape-like veil that covers the hair, neck, shoulders, and upper body, while leaving the face visible.

The khimār typically drapes over the shoulders and extends down to the mid-back or waist, depending on the style. It is usually worn over other clothing and may be paired with a separate headscarf or inner cap to secure it. Unlike the shorter styles of hijab, the khimār provides more extensive coverage of the upper body, making it a preferred choice for those seeking greater modesty.

The khimār is popular in many Muslim-majority countries, especially in the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeast Asia. A Muslim woman who wears the khimār or any other form of hijab may be called a “hijabi” in Arabic.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Al-Amira, Burqa, Chador, Niqab, Shayla

Kinship is blood-relationship between members of the same family. To have kinship with someone describes close connection based on similar ancestry, background or characteristics.

This acronym stands for those identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning or intersex. More recently, an 'A' has been added to the acronym to accommodate those identifying as asexual. The plus (+) symbol seeks to ensure that all identities of gender and sexuality are always included in the community. This can also include straight, cisgender allies of the LGBTQI+ community.

Policy and principles opposing clericalism and restricting political influence and power to the laity.

The people of a religious faith that are distinct from the clergy or monastery (ordinary or lay people).

Latin America is generally understood to consist of the entire continent of South America in addition to Mexico, Central America, and the islands of the Caribbean.

Countries of Latin America include Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti.

A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different.

Long-Term Orientation is a concept within Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory that explores how societies balance continuity with change. The Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation dimension examines the extent to which a culture maintains ties to its past while addressing present needs and planning for the future. This index demonstrates how different societies prioritise the competing demands of tradition and progress.

A low-LTO score indicates a short-term or normative orientation. Societies with this outlook tend to focus more on the past and present, valuing long-standing traditions and viewing societal change with caution or suspicion. People in these cultures often think in fixed, normative terms, guided by a strong belief in universal principles, absolute truths, and established norms that should guide behaviour. Maintaining consistency in personal values, beliefs, and social conventions is seen as a virtue. There is a preference for achieving quick results and a relatively low inclination to save or plan extensively for the future.

In contrast, a high-LTO score reflects a long-term or pragmatic orientation. Societies with this outlook tend to be forward-thinking and adaptable, viewing truth as context-dependent and subject to evolution over time. People in these cultures often adopt a practical and flexible mindset and are more willing to adjust established norms and traditions as circumstances change. There is a strong preference for long-term security and future planning (especially through education), driven by a belief that continuous effort and perseverance are key to achieving success. Thrift and self-discipline are core values in these cultures, with individuals frequently saving, investing, or delaying immediate gratification in pursuit of future rewards.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

Low-context cultures are those in which communication is explicit and direct, relying primarily on spoken or written language to convey meaning. Individuals express themselves clearly and unambiguously, with minimal dependence on indirect or non-verbal cues. All necessary information is included within the message itself, rather than being inferred from shared background knowledge or the situational context.

Members of low-context cultures tend to require less implicit understanding to cooperate. In such settings, social status or appearance does not reliably indicate a person’s position or intent. Instead, these cultures rely more on clearly defined roles, formal rules, and written documentation to guide interactions.

Low-context cultures are typically more modern, younger, and less traditional societies, such as those in Western Europe, Canada, the United States, and Australia. This cultural orientation contrasts with high-context societies, where communication relies on shared contextual knowledge and non-verbal cues to convey meaning.

For a deeper explanation of high- and low-context cultural communication, see the Inclusion Program’s Cultural Diversity Course.

Strong masculine pride

A maḥram is a person of the opposite gender whom one is permanently forbidden to marry under Islamic law. Maḥram individuals may be related by blood ties, marriage, or milk kinship (being breastfed by the same woman).

Not all relatives are considered maḥram. For instance, brothers- and sisters-in-law are considered non-maḥram, meaning marriage to them would be legally permissible in Islam.

According to the Qur’an, a Muslim woman is required to observe hijab in the presence of non-maḥram men, i.e. men she could lawfully marry or with whom sexual relations would be religiously permissible.

A person who is suffers death or persecution on behalf of a belief, principle or cause.

A tendency to consider material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values.

A system of social organisation by which a woman (or women) holds authority. In a matriarchal family, the mother, or grandmother is the head of the family and descent may be reckoned through the female line.

Of or denoting a custom in marriage whereby the husband goes to live with the wife's community.

A social system, society or organisation in which people receive success, preference or power based on their abilities, rather than their wealth or social position.

Meso-american civilization is the complex of indigenous cultures that developed in parts of Mexico and Central America prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. When referring to meso-america, one refers to the native cultures of the region before the arrival of the Spanish.

In Latin America, a person of mixed race that has Spanish/European and native Amerindian heritage to some degree.

The branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including abstract concepts such as being, knowing, identity, time, and space.

Microculture refers to a distinct cultural group within a larger dominant culture, characterised by its own unique values, norms, behaviours, or beliefs. These groups often form around shared characteristics such as ethnicity, religion, language, age, profession, social class, or interests.

Members of a microculture are often connected through a shared background, experience, or worldview. Participation is usually not voluntary, as it is often tied to aspects of identity such as birth, community, or circumstance.

While microcultures operate within the broader society, they maintain a distinct identity and set of practices that may diverge from the prevailing norms of the dominant culture. These differences can influence how members communicate, behave, and interact with others, both within and outside their group.

Examples include:
- Religious or ethnic minority groups within multicultural societies
- Youth subcultures
- Occupational groups (e.g. military culture)
- Queer communities

The belief that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

The doctrine or belief that there is only one God. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic religions. 

Motivation Towards Achievement and Success (MAS, formerly ‘Masculinity vs. Femininity’) is a concept within Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory that explores cultural perceptions of achievement and success. Specifically, the MAS index measures the extent to which individuals are motivated by the desire to be the best (Decisive) or to enjoy what they do (Consensus-oriented).

Decisive cultures (characterised by a high-MAS score) are driven by competition, achievement, and success. These societies emphasise assertiveness, ambition, heroism, and the pursuit of individual accomplishment. Success is often defined as winning, outperforming others, or gaining material rewards.

Consensus-oriented cultures (low-MAS score) place greater importance on the quality of life, relationships, and service as indicators of success. These societies prioritise collective well-being over individual recognition, with cooperation, modesty, compassion, and caring for others being dominant values.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

Multicultural refers to the coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a shared social, institutional, or geographic space. In multicultural contexts, multiple cultural identities are recognised and often celebrated, but typically remain distinct rather than integrated. Diverse cultures may live side by side with limited interaction, and dominant systems or norms often remain unchanged.

Multicultural communication involves interactions between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds within a shared environment. While cultural diversity is acknowledged, communication often occurs within the norms of the dominant culture, and mutual adaptation is limited. The emphasis is on respectful coexistence rather than deep cultural exchange or transformation.

See also: cross-cultural and intercultural for other types of cross-cultural interaction.

The practice among those with power or influence of favouring relatives or friends, especially by giving them jobs.

A niqāb (meaning “mask” in Arabic) is a face veil worn by some Muslim women to observe Islamic principles of modesty and partition (hijab). While most commonly associated with a full-face covering that leaves only the eyes visible, the Arabic word “niqāb” can also be used broadly to refer to any face-covering veil, including the burqa.

​​There are many variations of the niqab, differing in both form and extent of facial coverage. For example, some styles include a mesh screen or eye slit for vision, while others feature layered veils that can be lifted or adjusted.

The Gulf-style niqab (also known as the ‘full niqab’) covers the entire face except for a narrow opening at the eyes. In contrast, the ‘half niqab’ covers only the lower part of the face from the bridge of the nose downward, leaving the eyes and forehead exposed. These are typically worn in combination with a headscarf (hijab) and other modest garments, such as an abaya or chador, to cover the rest of the body from head to feet.

The niqab is particularly prevalent in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen and Qatar. It is often associated with conservative interpretations of Islam, such as Salafism, which emphasise strict adherence to religious law. However, its use varies widely depending on cultural, regional, and personal factors. The full niqab style is most common in Arab countries bordering the Persian Gulf (typically worn in black), while the 'half niqab' is often preferred in regions like South Asia and North Africa.

A Muslim woman who wears the niqab is often referred to as a “niqābi” in Arabic.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Al-Amira, Burqa, Chador, Khimar, Shayla

Nomadic people are those who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in a single location. This movement is typically seasonal and motivated by factors such as the search for food, water, or grazing land. Nomadic lifestyles are often associated with pastoralism, hunting and gathering, or trade. Social structures, housing, and cultural practices are usually adapted to mobility.

Standards or patterns of social behaviour that are typical or expected.

The nuclear family consists of a couple and their immediate children. It is considered the basic social unit of society in many cultures.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental forum where democratic countries with market-based economies collaborate on a range of economic and other policy areas. The organisation conducts evidence-based policy analysis and produces data to develop international policy standards that improve global economic and social well-being.

The OECD includes 38 member countries:

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, United Kingdom, United States

A term used to describe something or someone from East Asia. "Oriental" has various associations with European imperialism in Asia and tends to be related with an offensive stereotype of East Asian persons and their customs as being mysterious and ‘exotic’. "Asian" and more specific terms, such as "Chinese’ and ‘Japanese", are generally preferred.

Following or conforming to the traditional or generally accepted rules or beliefs of a religion, philosophy or practice.

Orthodoxy emphasises correct belief or doctrine in contrast to orthopraxy, which prioritises correct conduct (both liturgical and ethical).

The belief that correct conduct (both ethical and liturgical) is the most important demonstration of one's religious faith.

Orthopraxy emphasises the correct religious practice in contrast to orthodoxy, which prioritises correct belief or doctrine.

The belief that war and violence are unjustifiable and that all disputes should be settled by peaceful means.

Particularism is the belief that values, rules, or behaviours should be interpreted in light of the specific context, relationships, or circumstances, rather than applied universally. In particularist cultures, people tend to prioritise personal connections, loyalty, or situational factors over fixed rules or general principles.

In contrast to universalism, which promotes consistent application of rules, particularism allows for flexibility and exceptions. For example, in a particularist setting, helping a friend or family member may take precedence over following official procedures or institutional norms. Fairness isn't defined as treating everyone the same; instead, it requires contextual judgment, recognising the unique claims and needs of each relationship or situation. Emotional involvement and loyalty carry significant weight, and exceptions are often made to accommodate close ties or special circumstances.

Particularism is commonly observed in societies where personal relationships have a strong influence on decision-making, such as Russia and China. In such cultures, people often divide others into two categories: trusted insiders and distrusted outsiders. In-group relationships are typically very intimate, while trust towards strangers is low. However, when collaboration with outsiders is necessary, particularists may try to build personalised relationships to establish trust.

See also: Universalism

A restriction of the personal freedom and autonomy of a person (or class of persons) by an authority figure with the intention to promote that person's own interests.

A system of society in which authority is held by the oldest male. In a patriarchal family, the father is head of the family and descent is reckoned through the male line.

A pattern of marriage in which the couple settles in the husband's home or community. This involves the bride leaving her parents' home or town of birth to move into her husband's place of residence.

A settlement purposed to exile prisoners to remote location, away from the general population. It is usually situated on an island or distant colonial territory.

A permanent migrant is someone who has been granted a permanent visa, allowing them to live, work, and study in the country indefinitely. In Australia, individuals granted a permanent visa become permanent residents and may apply for Australian citizenship after meeting eligibility requirements, such as a minimum residency period.

Examples of permanent migrants in Australia include:

• Skilled Workers: Individuals selected based on skills, qualifications, or business acumen to meet Australia’s economic needs.
• Family and Children: Partners, children, or other close family members of Australian citizens, permanent residents, or eligible New Zealand citizens.
• Humanitarian Program Entrants: Refugees and others in need of protection under Australia’s humanitarian migration program.
• Special Eligibility Visa Holders: Certain former residents and individuals with historical ties to Australia, such as members of the Australian Defence Force.

The quality of being devoutly religious or reverent.

A belief that various religious, ethnic, racial, and political groups should be allowed to maintain and develop their traditional culture or special interest within the common society.

The act of putting constraints on interactions to build rapport, establish understanding and show sensitivity to feeling or face.

The practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.

A form of polygamy in which a man has more than one wife.

The belief in or worship of more than one god or deity. Hinduism is an example of a polytheistic religion.

Occurring or existing after the end of colonial rule.

Power Distance is a concept used in Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory to understand the nature of hierarchical relationships within societies and the extent to which individuals tolerate power disparities. It examines how openly a society or culture accepts or rejects power differences between people, whether in the family, workplace, government, or other organisations.

Specifically, the Power Distance Index (PDI) measures the degree to which less powerful members of society expect and accept unequal power distribution within organisations and institutions. This index is also used to represent the level of inequality within a society.

High-PDI societies have clearly defined hierarchies and rigid authority structures. Social stratification is typically accepted as part of the natural order, and individuals often defer to those in positions of power. Low-PDI societies, on the other hand, exhibit more egalitarian approaches to power. People are more likely to challenge authority and demand justifications for power imbalances.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

To convert or attempt to convert someone from one religion, belief or opinion to another.

The term race refers to the social concept of categorically dividing humankind based on people’s distinct physical characteristics which usually result from genetic ancestry (e.g. skin colour, cranial or facial features and hair texture).

Race presumes shared biological or genetic traits, whether actual or asserted. In the early 19th century, racial differences were ascribed significance in areas of intelligence, health, and personality. There is no evidence validating these ideas.

Racial categories result from a shared genealogy due to geographical isolation. In the modern world this isolation has been broken down and racial groups have mixed. People of the same race often share experiences of racial bias; however, they do not necessarily share cultural, historical or linguistic backgrounds. A person’s race is not determined by cultural or behavioural factors (see Ethnicity instead).

A feeling of loyalty to a particular part of a country, often accompanied by a wish for it to be more politically independent.

A transfer of money by a foreign worker to an individual in their home country.

Restraint is a concept within Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory that refers to the degree of freedom societal norms allow individuals in fulfilling their basic human desires and impulses. The Indulgence versus Restraint (IND) index specifically examines the extent to which societies permit or suppress the gratification of these desires. A high-IND score indicates a cultural inclination toward Indulgence, while a low-IND score signifies a tendency toward Restraint.

In restrained cultures, the gratification of desires and impulses is limited by strict social norms and cultural expectations. There is a strong emphasis on self-discipline, duty, and social responsibility. People in these societies are more likely to prioritise long-term goals and societal obligations over immediate personal satisfaction.

Leisure and personal enjoyment are often considered secondary to one’s responsibilities and may even be viewed as inappropriate or shameful. Indulgence in luxuries or entertainment is typically moderated and framed within moral or practical boundaries. This cultural orientation can shape expectations around modesty, hard work, and social conformity, influencing areas such as parenting, education, economic behaviour, and public policy.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

The violation or misuse of something regarded as sacred. The sacred may be a deity, person, object, building, or doctrine.

A religious group that has differing religious, political or philosophical beliefs from the larger or dominant religion to which they are connected.

Secular refers to that which is not connected with religious or spiritual matters. For example, a secular government is, in theory, not influenced or bound by religious rules.

This is the process by which a country or people determine their own statehood, identity and government. UN Declaration of Human Rights states that "all peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development".

Semi-nomadic groups are those that engage in regular movement but maintain a fixed base or return to certain areas periodically. They may alternate between mobile and settled living, often depending on seasonal cycles or economic needs. While they rely on mobility (such as for herding or cultivation), they also establish more permanent structures, engage in farming, or participate in broader settled communities.

The shayla is a type of hijab worn by some Muslim women to observe the Islamic principle of modesty and partition. It is a long, rectangular scarf that is wrapped around the head and neck, typically draped over the shoulders while leaving the face visible.

Unlike the al-amira or khimar, the shayla is typically pinned, wrapped, or tucked in place. This allows for a variety of styling options, from simple drapes to more elaborate folds. The wearer can adjust the tightness and coverage to suit their personal preference, social setting, or desired level of modesty. This versatility makes the shayla a popular choice for both everyday wear and formal occasions.

The shayla is particularly popular in the Arabian Gulf region, worn widely in countries such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Bahrain. It is often paired with an abaya, forming a culturally recognisable ensemble.

A Muslim woman who wears the shayla or any other form of hijab may be called a “hijabi” in Arabic.

See also: Hijab, Abaya, Al-Amira, Burqa, Chador, Khimar, Niqab

To make Chinese in character or form; a process whereby non-Han Chinese societies come under the influence of Han Chinese state and society.

The organisation of societal roles into a vertical structure that dictates deference and responsibility among people and interactions.

A person not recognized as a citizen of any country.

A latin term that literally translates as ‘the state in which’. It is often used to refer to the existing state of affairs, chiefly regarding social or political issues.

The attribution of a predominant characteristic of a group to an individual in the group without recognition of the reality of individual variation within a group.

See also: Generalise

Stingy describes someone who is reluctant to spend or share money, resources, or possessions when it's reasonably expected of them. In Australian usage, calling someone stingy implies they’re excessively frugal or overly protective of their wealth, often to the point of being ungenerous or selfish.

Example: “Matt always jumps out of the taxi first so he doesn’t have to pay. He’s so stingy.”

The amalgamation or attempted amalgamation of different religions, cultures, or schools of thought.

Tactile refers to sensations, perceptions, or interactions that are felt through physical contact with the skin. It relates to the sense of touch, such as feeling texture, pressure, or temperature.

Describing someone as tactile suggests they are comfortable with casual physical contact and often use touch in communication – for example, through handshakes, hugs, or a reassuring pat on the back.

The Taliban is a fundamentalist Islamist movement that originated in the early 1990s in Afghanistan. The group emerged from among Afghan mujahideen fighters and religious students (talibs) who were educated in conservative Islamic schools, particularly in Pakistan. “Taliban” is the Pashto word for “students.”

The Taliban gained national prominence in 1996 when it seized control of Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, ruling most of the country under a strict interpretation of Islamic (Sharia) law. During their rule (1996–2001), the Taliban imposed harsh restrictions on women’s rights, banned many forms of cultural expression, and provided safe haven to extremist groups like al-Qaeda.

They were removed from power in 2001 by a U.S.-led military coalition following the September 11 attacks. However, the Taliban gradually re-emerged as an insurgent force, launching a prolonged conflict against the Afghan government and international forces.

In August 2021, the Taliban regained control of Afghanistan after the withdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops and the collapse of the Afghan government. Since then, they have re-established the Islamic Emirate, though international recognition of their regime remains limited due to ongoing human rights concerns, especially in relation to women and minorities.

A perceived tendency to discredit those who have achieved notable wealth or prominence in public life.

A temporary migrant is a foreign national who holds a visa allowing them to stay in the country for a specified, limited time period. Their stay is typically tied to a specific purpose, such as work, study, or tourism, and the visa has an expiration date. In Australia, temporary visa conditions may place restrictions on employment, access to services, or the length and terms of stay.

Examples of temporary migrants in Australia include:

• Working Holiday Makers: Young adults who visit Australia for a holiday and can undertake short-term work or study.
• International Students: Students enrolled in registered courses at Australian educational institutions.
• Temporary Skilled Workers: Individuals sponsored by Australian employers to fill skilled positions where there is a shortage of local workers for a specific period.
• New Zealand Citizens: Under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, New Zealand citizens can live and work in Australia on a Special Category visa.
• Visitors: People in Australia for holidays, tourism, recreation, seeing family and friends, or short-term business purposes.

A tithe refers to the practice of religious charity, whereby a person offers a set proportion of their wealth to their religious denomination. The act of tithing is usually voluntary. However, some religions and denominations may require a set amount of wealth. The term is most commonly associated with Christian churches.

Uncertainty Avoidance is a concept used in Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory to understand how societies manage ambiguity and cope with unpredictability. The Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) measures the extent to which a culture prioritises security, structure, and stability versus its tolerance for ambiguity and flexibility.

Cultures with high-UAI scores typically have strong formal structures to minimise risk and uncertainty. These societies often place a high value on rules, regulations, and existing codes of belief or behaviour. Change to established conventions and tradition may be viewed with suspicion and resisted. Members of these societies tend to prefer familiar routines that provide a sense of stability and reduce anxiety about ambiguity or unforeseen circumstances.

In contrast, low-UAI cultures exhibit a higher tolerance for uncertainty and risk. These societies are typically more open to new ideas, adaptable to change, and tend to operate with fewer formal regulations. Flexibility is viewed as a strength, and individuals are generally more comfortable with ambiguity, often approaching unpredictable situations with a relaxed and open mindset.

Learn more about Hofstede's dimensions of national culture here.

The action of anointing someone with oil or ointment as a religious rite or as a symbol of investiture as a monarch.

Universalism is the belief that certain values, rules, and behaviours should be applied consistently and uniformly to all situations and individuals, regardless of specific contexts or relationships. It assumes that certain principles, such as human rights, justice, or ethical standards, are universally valid and should be upheld across all societies.

People in universalist cultures tend to prioritise fixed rules, laws, and principles over personal connections or situational factors. In contrast to particularism, which allows for flexibility and exceptions based on context, universalism emphasises impartiality and consistency. For example, in a universalist setting, a university admissions committee would apply the same academic criteria to all applicants, regardless of whether an applicant is related to a committee member.

Universalism is commonly observed in societies where formal institutions, laws, and regulations strongly guide behaviour, such as the United States, Germany, and many Northern European countries. In such cultures, trust is often built through predictable behaviour and adherence to established norms and procedures. In professional or formal contexts, objectivity and compliance with protocols carry significant weight, while emotional involvement is typically set aside to ensure fairness.

See also: Particularism

Vigilantism refers to the act of individuals or groups taking the law into their own hands, typically to punish or deter those they perceive as wrongdoers. It is a form of law enforcement undertaken without legal authority by self-appointed actors, sometimes using violence or intimidation.

Vigilante movements are often motivated by a sense of justice or protection and tend to emerge in response to perceived failures, delays, or inadequacies within the formal justice system.

To adopt or be influenced by the cultural, economic, or political systems of Europe and North America.

The White Australia Policy was an approach to immigration by the Australian government enforced from 1901 up until the mid-20th century. The changes to the Migration Act sought to effectively prohibit immigration from non-European countries, particularly neighbouring Asian countries such as Vietnam, China and Japan. Subsequent Australian governments gradually abolished the policy, with its official removal occurring in 1973.

A white-collar worker is someone engaged in professional, administrative, managerial, or desk work that does not involve physical labour. It typically refers to jobs performed in an office or similar setting that require higher levels of education and training than manual labour jobs.

This occupational classification originated in the early 20th century to describe the emerging professional class, referencing the white-collared shirts and tailored suits worn in office settings.

Zionism is a political movement that began in 19th-century Europe, aiming to establish a homeland for Jewish people in the historic region of Palestine. This movement ultimately led to the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.

Zionism is a political term, not a synonym for Jewish or Judaism. Today, it generally refers to the ideology of establishing, supporting, and protecting the State of Israel. A person who supports this movement is called a Zionist. It is important to note that not all Jewish people or Israelis identify as Zionists.

To learn more about the creation of Israel, visit the Israeli profile.